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A History of Muslim Pharmacy:
Concluding Remarks

Al-Biruni, in most cases and often intentionally, excluded the pharmacological part in his treatment of the various materia medica entries. He concentrated his efforts on describing the physical properties of simples comparing one with another , discussing habitat, kinds and species, trade and ecology, a crude approach to what we term pharmacognosy in modern times. He also excelled in defining the apothecary art and the place of the pharmacist as a member of the health team.

As far as al-Ghafiqi was concerned, he displayed the integrity, honesty and intelligent investigation of a dedicated naturalist and professional. His description of these natural products reveals one of the highest expressions of ethical and medical achievements in Islam. His analysis of the physical and therapeutic virtues of drugs exhibited ingenuity and farsightedness in these fields that surpassed that of all his contemporaries in the east and in the west.

Al-Biruni's as-Saydanah, which established the basis for an objective and rational understanding of pharmacy, and al-Ghafiqi's al-jami', which promoted physical and therapeutic appreciation and utilization of simple drugs seem to represent the high degree of proficiency achieved in Muslim pharmaceutical literary contribution during the Middle Ages. In objectivity, reliability and excellence they reached the climax in these fields, a height that never was surpassed up to the European Renaissance.